In the coastal province of Cabo Delgado in northern Mozambique, what began in October 2017 as a series of deadly attacks by an armed group has escalated into a full-scale civil war. Known locally as ‘al-Shabaab’ (although distinct from the Somalia-based terror group of the same name), the group has waged a violent insurgency, causing widespread displacement and food insecurity. The region is rich in natural resources, and conflict is deeply intertwined with enormous mineral and hydrocarbon discoveries in the region in the 2010s.
Despite widespread recognition of the dynamics that have driven conflict on the Mozambique-Tanzania border, research has mostly focused just on causes and effects, without addressing the lived realities of communities in the borderlands. Recent research conducted by Bodhi Global Analysis on the border of the two countries reveals how gender and geography shape people’s experiences, creating impacts that have often been overlooked, outlined in this blog.
The prevailing nature of gender norms in conflict
Research found that men’s and women’s involvement in the conflict broadly aligns with existing gender norms and remain either unchanged or even reinforced. Most fighters and leaders of al-Shabaab are men, who also make most of the tactical decisions and carry out most attacks. Women, by contrast, have often been forcibly recruited into al-Shabaab through abduction or forcibly married to al-Shabaab fighters as a means for their families to secure protection and income.
Economic factors largely drive some of these roles. Recruitment into al-Shabaab allows men to fulfil gender-based expectations around providing for their families in a context where economic opportunities are scarce, and poverty levels are high. Where men have lost their livelihoods, they have found dominant ideas of masculinity challenged, pushing some into alcoholism, and, in turn, increasing rates of domestic violence. Despite this, women have expressed that, despite the economic burden they faced themselves, they were sympathetic to a belief that men were suffering from an inability to fulfil traditional roles as providers. The reality of this, of course, has been that men have effectively escaped accountability for physical violence.
Gendered experiences either side of the border
Cross-border trade has traditionally been dominated by men on both sides, who acted as the primary providers for their families through commercial activities like farming, fishing, and casual labour in agriculture and construction. This is enabled by a lack of restrictions on men’s mobility, allowing them to take advantage of cross-border transport methods like motorcycle taxis, boats, and buses. Where border closures have occurred, men in Mozambique have tended to seek informal labour in agriculture. In Tanzania, however, this has pushed many into joining al-Shabaab and migrate out of their community area.
The effect on women, however, is much greater. Women are often confined to more domestic household roles, or engage in some smaller scale income-generating activities to support families. Facing greater restrictions on mobility and access to resources, as well as increased risks of physical violence, many gender norms have changed for the worse in hard times. Insecurity and the loss of men to the conflict has led to an increase in female-headed households; these women bear a double burden of financially supporting their family while supporting their obligations at home. Where many women have relied on the incomes of husbands, they have been driven to desperate measures to provide for their families when these men have left or lost income opportunities. This has been seen in an increase in the prevalence of transactional sex on both sides of the border, as well as through the marriage of women to al-Shabaab fighters in Tanzania.
Between vulnerability and opportunity: women’s agency in the conflict
Despite the challenges women face, female heads of households have increasingly become involved in community leadership, which has traditionally been reserved for men. This conflict has thus created a space for women to assert agency by taking on these responsibilities. This, however, is rare, and prevailing gender norms continue to form a significant barrier to women’s empowerment. Some women cited joining armed groups as a means of gaining agency: women have sometimes joined al-Shabaab voluntarily, working as spies or in other supporting tasks such as transporting money and weapons across the border.
Rethinking gender in conflict zones
The findings from the borderlands research challenge conventional gendered narratives on conflict dynamics: men are not always perpetrators of violence, and women are not simply one-dimensional victims of armed conflict. The conflict has exposed a number of risks and opportunities for women in particular. For policymakers and humanitarian actors, this highlights the need to rethink approaches to gender in conflict, in a way that considers the range of roles that men and women might play. Crucially, it means more accurately addressing the drivers behind women’s support of and participation in armed conflict, supporting the creation of livelihood opportunities, community initiatives, and targeted support that addresses women’s social and economic needs. Only by moving beyond assumptions and recognising the full spectrum of gendered experiences can responses by impactful and sustainable.